Advanced Engineering

1.Nanotechnology:-

Nanotechnology is comprised of design and manufacturing of devices that are made from atoms. This is a very new field that involves computer science, physics, chemistry and biology. The ultimate goal of nanotechnology is to build microscopic computer systems at molecular or atomic scale. Such a computer might be constructed from fullerenes or diamonoids.

The presumption of nanotechnology is the capability of manipulating individual molecules and atoms. This has been the major difficulty in nanotechnology and has produced substantial skepticism over the practicability of nanotechnology. However, recent progresses in theoretical and laboratory chemistry provided considerable evidence for the possibility of manipulation of individual molecules and atoms needed for building systems at a microscopic scale. For example, Han, Globus, Jaffe and Deardorff proposed molecular gears fashioned from carbon nanotubes with teeth added via a benzyne reaction.

2.Biomolecular Computation:-

Bio-molecular computation is the use of biological mechanisms and structures to perform computation. It is inter-disciplinary by nature, lying in the interface between biochemistry and computer science. Robotics also may play a key role as well. See the survey on BMC by Reif And see discussion below of DNA motors, DNA self-assembly, and use of MEMS for BMC automation. We discuss a number of distinct methods for BMC. All these methods use biotechnology techniques to do computation or processing at the molecular scale.

Huge Memories:- BMC has the potential to provide huge memories. Each individual strand of DNA can encode binary information. A small volume can contain a vast number of molecules. DNA in weak solution in one liter of water can encode 107 to 108 tera-bytes, and we can perform massively parallel associative searches on these memories.

Massively Parallel Machines.

BMC also has the potential to supply massive computational power. General use of BMC is to construct parallel machines where each processor's state is encoded by a DNA strand. These recombinant DNA operations may be performed to execute massively parallel local memory read/write, logical operations and also further basic operations on words such as parallel arithmetic. DNA in weak solution in one liter of water can encode the state of about 1018 processors, and since certain recombinant DNA operations can take many minutes, the overall potential for a massively parallel BMC machines is about 1,000 tera-ops.

3.In-Depth Communication:-

• Raytheon has developed a technology that makes it possible to communicate with a submerged submarine at classified speeds and depths in real time.
• The defence technology specialist demonstrated the new technology, called Deep Siren Tactical Paging (DSTP), for the UK's Royal Navy at an at-sea trial.
• The Ministry of Defence (MoD) reported that the Deep Siren system demonstrated ‘the first step toward a transformational capability that will change the way we operate submarines in the future’.
• Raytheon claims national security interests require submarines to be fully interoperable with joint and coalition forces, but technical challenges have prevented this in the past. The company said DSTP overcomes this communication shortfall by giving operational commanders the ability to contact a submarine in real time, regardless of the submarine’s speed or depth.
• The evaluation, which took place during the UK Royal Navy's TAURUS 09 deployment, follows US Navy testing conducted in 2008 that culminated with a successful military utility assessment.
• Raytheon is also currently working on airborne certification of Deep Siren, which will allow the system's buoys to be deployed via aircraft.
• The Deep Siren system is a vital command and control communications link that provides never-before available capability,’ said Jerry Powlen, vice-president of Raytheon’s network centric systems integrated communications systems. ‘This system once again demonstrated its utility and reliability, proving that we are ready to move forward with production.’
• Raytheon claims the trial validated that DSTP system buoys can be used to communicate with submarines at underwater at ranges greater than 100 nautical miles (185km). The trial also reportedly demonstrated that Deep Siren can accelerate the process to communicate with a submarine by passing tactical messages between a commander and submarine in real time.
• The Royal Navy used Deep Siren to share contact information with a submarine, providing positions for both friendly and enemy forces.

Marine Technology

Environmentalist Raewyn Peart loves darting like a guppy around our undersea realm, from fish of all shapes and sizes to colourful sponges, kelps and corals. She's keen to pass on her love of snorkelling to her daughter and, in late summer, headed for Matai Bay in the Far North, where the marine life was reputedly as scenic as the majestic, horse-shoe shaped bay. She was shattered by the degradation.
"It was appalling - just barren. There were no sea eggs and it had been stripped of seaweed. It was a site of devastation and, for me, that's incredibly upsetting."
Peart is doubly concerned at the Department of Conservation's plan to axe its specialist marine conservation unit in a bid to cut costs at head office.
"Our marine environment is in a terrible state," says the senior policy analyst with the Environmental Defence Society.
"We have a well-resourced and politically-powerful ministry whose core focus is utilising and exploiting it. We don't have an effective organisation that can really counter-balance that in the policy-making area.

Aerospace Engineering general measures

Tasks

* Inspect, diagnose, maintain, and operate test setups and equipment to detect malfunctions.
* Record and interpret test data on parts, assemblies, and mechanisms.
* Confer with engineering personnel regarding details and implications of test procedures and results.
* Adjust, repair or replace faulty components of test setups and equipment.
* Identify required data, data acquisition plans and test parameters, setting up equipment to conform to these specifications.
* Construct and maintain test facilities for aircraft parts and systems, according to specifications.
* Operate and calibrate computer systems and devices to comply with test requirements and to perform data acquisition and analysis.
* Test aircraft systems under simulated operational conditions, performing systems readiness tests and pre- and post-operational checkouts, to establish design or fabrication parameters.
* Fabricate and install parts and systems to be tested in test equipment, using hand tools, power tools, and test instruments.
* Finish vehicle instrumentation and deinstrumentation.

Knowledge
Engineering and Technology — Knowledge of the practical application of engineering science and technology. This includes applying principles, techniques, procedures, and equipment to the design and production of various goods and services.
Computers and Electronics — Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and programming.
Mechanical — Knowledge of machines and tools, including their designs, uses, repair, and maintenance.
Customer and Personal Service — Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction.
Administration and Management — Knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning, resource allocation, human resources modeling,
Design — Knowledge of design techniques, tools, and principles involved in production of precision technical plans, blueprints, drawings, and models.
English Language — Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar.
Production and Processing — Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality control, costs, and other techniques for maximizing the effective manufacture and distribution of goods.
Skills
Equipment Selection — Determining the kind of tools and equipment needed to do a job.
Reading Comprehension — Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents.
Critical Thinking — Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems.
Troubleshooting — Determining causes of operating errors and deciding what to do about it.
Active Listening — Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times.
Technology Design — Generating or adapting equipment and technology to serve user needs.

Chemical mechanical polishing Technique

Chemical mechanical polishing:
Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is a process that, during the past 20 years, has achieved a high level of importance in various industrial sectors, particularly in microelectronics. During the last 5 years, various technological advances have occurred in this field, leading to increased market demand for CMP equipment and materials.
The main goal of this report is to provide new insights into current CMP technology, outlining technological trends, and supplying an updated market analysis of equipment and materials utilized for chemical mechanical polishing.
Specifically, the major objectives of this study are to:
1. Provide an updated revie w of the chemical mechanical polishing process and related equipment, focusing on the most advanced equipment upgrades and variants.
2. Provide an overview of materials commonly used in chemical mechanical polishing and identify new materials.
3. Highlight new technological developments in chemical mechanical polishing, while outlining technical issues.
4. Review the fields of application for CMP and investigate emerging applications.
5. Estimate current global markets for CMP equipment and materials (including CMP and post-CMP equipment, CMP slurries, CMP pads and pad conditioners) with growth forecasts through 2013 for each market segment.
6. Identify important technology and market trends within each market segment.
7. Supply an updated review of current producers of equipment and materials for chemical mechanical polishing.
8. Identify major users of CMP equipment, slurries, pads and pad conditioners.
9. Provide a description of current worldwide research activities and evaluate their impact on industry growth.
10. Determine trends in U.S. patents issued during the most recent years

This report contains:
* Provides an in-depth analysis of CMP technology and its applications
* Analyzes and forecasts the size and future growth of the markets for CMP and post-CMP equipment, slurries, pads and pad conditioners, and other consumables, with forecasts through 2012
* Identifies major users and end-uses.
* Identifies the technological issues related to CMP
* Examines major new R&D and technology changes and their impact on CMP
* Analyzes domestic and foreign competition among companies within each market segment
* Profiles all worldwide producers of CMP and post CMP equipment and materials
* Includes market shares, industry structure and patent analysis.

AUTOMATIC CAR DRIVING

INTRODUCTION:-

All around the world almost 45% of the accidents occur by mistakes of the driver. Most of these accidents are fatal. The victims of such accidents are either severly injured, some even risk their life by their careless driving. This was the main reason behind this project work put forward by the Delphi-Delco electronic systems and General Motors Corporation. It was called the Automotive Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) field operation program.



WORKING:-

TWO TYPE OF CONTROLS:-

1.Forward Collision Warning (FCW) :-
Forward Collision Warning (FCW) System was one of the achievements of the Delphi-Delco Electronic Systems, which was successfully implemented in the
(a) 1994 Toyota Lexus LS400
(b) 1994 GM Cadillac Seville, and
(c) 1998 Opel Vectra.
These vehicles have been modified to provide the basic functionality of fully integrated ACC and FCW systems. Forewarn Smart Cruise Control with Headway Alert uses a mechanically scanning, 76 GHz, long-range radar sensor to detect objects in the vehicle's path up to 150 meters or 402 feet ahead. The system helps to reduce the need for drivers to manually adjust speed or disengage cruise control when encountering slower traffic.


2.Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
• Adaptive Cruise Control and Forward Collision Warning systems require an ability to resolve and identify robustly the existence of both stationary and moving 'target' vehicles that are in the motion path of the Host vehicle. The performance of these systems is affected by their ability
(a) to estimate the relative inter-vehicular path motion between the host vehicle, the roadway ahead of the host, and all of the appropriate targets and
(b) to predict the mutual intersection of these motion paths. In addition, these systems must be robust in the presence of various types of driving behavior and roadway conditions are encountered in the 'real-world' environment.
• The target selection approach pursued used a single active forward looking radar sensor augmented with a yaw rate sensor. The forward-looking radar sensor provided target range, range rate, and angular position information.
• The yaw rate sensor was used to estimate the roadway curvature ahead of the Host vehicle. Delphi's first generation target discrimination algorithms were used to identify overhead bridge objects and to discriminate between moving cars and trucks.

A VOYAGE IN COSTARICA

COSTA RICA:-

January 17 – 20, 2010

Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity is legendary, especially given that the country is comparable in size to West Virginia. The numbers of plant and animal species make for staggering statistics: 35,000 species of insects; 9,000 species of plants, including 900 different types of trees; 750 species of birds; 200 mammal species, including four kinds of monkeys; 200 species of reptiles, including 14 turtle species; and 150 species of amphibians.

Our three night land extension is the perfect opportunity to witness this intense proliferation

of life as we travel through lush green rain forests, along magnificent rivers, and high into cloud forests. Highlights include the La Paz Waterfall Gardens where nine viewing platforms overlook five waterfalls and offer excellent views of the spectacular La Paz River.

The base for our explorations is the lovely Sueño Azul Resort, located in the small town of Horquetas de Sarapiquí. Perched atop a verdant hillside near the confluence of the Puerto Viejo and San Rafael Rivers, Sueño Azul is also in proximity to the Braulio Carrillo National Park and its resident wildlife. During the course of two days we go birding, explore the network of trails through the forest, and enjoy a boat ride along the Sarapiquí River to look for toucans, monkeys, sloths, and other rain forest inhabitants.

At La Selva Biological Station, owned by the Organization for Tropical Studies, we enjoy guided nature walks through old growth forest which is home to five of the six species of felines, a third of the country’s plant species, and more than half of Costa Rica’s bird species—including red-lored parrots and semiplumbeous hawks, the symbol of La Selva. A canopy walk through the treetops reveals views of birds such as violaceous trogons and golden-hooded tanagers.

EXPEDITION LEADERS

Lia Oprea (Expedition Leader) – Part Romanian, Lia gives credit to her Gypsy heritage for her peripatetic nature and love of exploration. This love led her to travel widely around the globe and, quite naturally, to a career in adventure travel, a trade she has plied for more than a dozen years. While with Zegrahm Expeditions Lia has spent much of her time leading expeditions throughout the Mediterranean, Central America, Eastern Europe, and the Indian Ocean.

Kevin Clement – Although his specialty is subarctic ecology, Kevin’s work as a naturalist and adventure travel guide has taken him from his home in Alaska to all seven continents. He has worked in several national parks and has guided groups in whitewater rafts, sea kayaks, and on

Thomas and Natalia Baechtold – Thomas and Natalia’s ceaseless passion for the outdoors, natural history, and photography has taken them on many expeditions around the globe. Thomas has worked on expedition ships and dive live-aboards, giving him the opportunity to explore all seven continents over the last twelve years.

Richard Cahill – Born and raised in Panama, Rich is one of the most experienced guides in that country, having led ecotravelers throughout the region for the past ten years. He is a veteran of four trans-Darién expeditions, more than 250 excursions to the Barro Colorado Nature Monument, and countless other adventures in the rain forests of the isthmus. Rich’s knowledge and enthusiasm make him popular with travelers. He is an experienced diver, and in addition to his work in Central America, has also traveled in the Galápagos.

Greg Homel – A birder-naturalist since early childhood, Greg now travels the world on a full-time basis in search of rare and little-known birds and wildlife, which he presents through digital lecture series, television, and publications in the wild.

ULTRASONIC WELDING

GENERAL IDEAS:-

The ultrasonic effect upon the molten metal generates a smaller grain size, giving the metal more strength. Ultrasonic welding combines pressure and high frequency vibration motions to form a solid state bond. The range ultrasonic frequency used in this welding is from 20kHz to 60kHz. This cool, strong weld capable of joining such combination as aluminium to steel, aluminium to tungsten, aluminium to molybdenum and nickel to brass. Ultrasonic welding has also made it possible to join metals with vastly different melting temperatures, making strong rigid joints. Thus many applications previously considered unweldable can now revaluated.

CIRCUIT:-

OPERATION:-

· It consists of an ultrasonic generator, which generates a frequency of 20 kHz to 40 kHz from a supply of 220v/50Hz. The converter transforms the high frequency electric energy produced by the generator into mechanical energy.

· The booster serves as an amplitude transformer for the required amplitude range as well as a general stabilizer for the oscillations of the transducer system. The sonotrode or horn is the working tool of the ultrasonic metal welding.

· The pieces to be welded are clamped between the welding tip called sonotrode and anvil. Both tip and anvil are faced with high-speed steel, since considerable wear can occur at the contacting surface. The process of ultrasonic welding is fairly simple.

· The system that is used to scrub the pieces together consists of four major components. The first of these is the anvil. This is simply a piece of the machine, usually with a replaceable head, that holds one of the components still while the other is rubbed against it..

TRAIN - Vaccum Brake System

DEFINITION:-

A moving train contains energy, known as kinetic energy, which needs to be removed from the train in order to cause it to stop. The simplest way of doing this is to convert the energy into heat. The conversion is usually done by applying a contact material to the rotating wheels or to discs attached to the axles. The material creates friction and converts the kinetic energy into heat. The wheels slow down and eventually the train stops. The material used for braking is normally in the form of a block or pad.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION:-
The vast majority of the world's trains are equipped with braking systems which use compressed air as the force used to push blocks on to wheels or pads on to discs. These systems are known as "air brakes" or "pneumatic brakes". An alternative to the air brake, known as the vacuum brake, was introduced around the early 1870s, the same time as the air brake. Like the air brake, the vacuum brake system is controlled through a brake pipe connecting a brake valve in the driver's cab with braking equipment on every vehicle.

LAYOUT:-



WORKING:-
The pressure in the atmosphere is defined as 1 bar or about 14.5 lbs. per square inch. Reducing atmospheric pressure to 0 lbs. per square inch, creates a near perfect vacuum which is measured as 30 inches of mercury, written as 30 Hg. Each 2 inches of vacuum therefore represents about 1 lb. per square inch of atmospheric pressure.In the UK, vacuum brakes operated with the brake pipe at 21 Hg, except on the Great Western Railway which operated at 25 Hg. The vacuum in the brake pipe is created and maintained by a motor-driven exhauster.
The maximum retarding force applied by the brake blocks at wheels depends upon the coefficient of friction between the wheels and the rail and the component of the weight of the wagon on the wheels. Mathematically the retarding force F can be expressed as

F = C * W
where C = the coefficient of friction
W = component of weight of wagon on the wheels

If the coefficient of friction becomes equal to unity then the retarding force will be equal to the weight of the wagon. Also the deceleration equals the acceleration due to gravity. Then the braking efficiency is 100%. This is the theoretical limit for braking efficiency. Highly efficient brakes giving a large deceleration might injure the passengers due to sudden stopping of the train More over this will cause the brake shoes to wear rapidly and their is always the risk of derailment. The braking efficiencies usually vary from 50% to 80%,
which enables the train to stop safely with in a reasonable distance. The equations used for the calculations of acceleration can also be used for calculating the braking distance except to the accelerating force becomes the braking force Fb
The brake force
Fb = p* EB * C
Where p = brake shoe pressure
CF = co-efficient of fricton between brake shoe and wheel
EB=efficiency of braking

Military Aircraft Technology-Stealth

Stealth Technology:-

Stealth means low observable . The very basic idea of Stealth Technology in the military is to blend in with the background. It was during the World War II RADAR was first used in the warfront as an early Warning system against fleets of bombers.From then onwards the quest for a technology which could cheat the radar system arised. Engineers began looking at ways to make planes harder to track. The result of the quest ended in the most sophisticated technology- The Stealth Technology.
Stealth Technology is used in the construction of mobile military systems such as aircrafts, tanks and ships to significantly reduce their detection by an enemy, primarily by an enemy RADAR. The low observability unique characteristics gives it the unique ability to penetrate an enemy s most sophisticated defences and threaten its most valued and heavily defended targets.

FA-37 New Stealth Fighter Air Craft Jet:-

• Making the rounds to an Email box near you! I just got it and found out that this has been circulating for some time. Below are photographs of a prototype aircraft known as the Talon.
• Reportedly it was taken onboard the USS George Washington CVN-73 for catapult fit checks. It noted that it was not exactly still Top Secret but certainly not yet made public.
• The specs that were known were list to be a Mach 3.5 (top speed in the Mach 4 range), super-cruise stealth fighter / bomber / interceptor with approximately a 4,000nm range.

STEALTH ARCHITECTURE:-

• USS Abraham Lincoln at Pearl Harbor HawaiiThese photographs are not images of a prototype F/A-37 “Talon” aircraft being tested aboard the aircraft carrier USS George Washington, but pictures taken from the filming of the motion picture Stealth (which wasn’t that good and had numerous incorrect features).
• Although these pictures come from a fictional movie, they were taken aboard a real U.S. aircraft carrier, the USS Abraham Lincoln, which was used for filming while the vessel was at San Diego’s Naval Air Station North Island in June 2004.
• USS Abraham Public Affairs Press Release
• Fighter jets chocked and chained to the deck, Sailors scurrying from place to place, the occasional whirr of rising aircraft elevators, this could be a hangar bay of any aircraft carrier. In fact, the repetitious scene often causes shipmates to become oblivious to their overwhelming surroundings.
• Teamwork seemed to be the word of the week, as both the movie and ship’s crews worked together to complete the ship’s mission and lend a hand in the production.
• Abe Sailors were given numerous opportunities throughout the week to be extras in the film, and share the spotlight with the Hollywood lineup. Donning float coats and cranials, the Sailors, producers and actors looked alike on the flight deck as the cameras rolled.

SENSOTRONIC BRAKE SYSTEM

Sensotronic Brake System:-

Energy conversion and equipment are closely related due to industrialisation and increase in population our environment is polluted vigorously. Many of the industries and fossil fuel power plant emit CO2, CO, particulate matter, heat and other poisonous gases to the atmosphere. Resulting many problems like global warming, health hazards, environmental degrading etc.

We need clean air, atmosphere and surrounding for good health and better quality of living. The energy needs are increasing due to industrial advancement higher standard of timing, increasing population etc. There is no way other than increasing the production of usable energy. But we know that every man made energy conversion has contain degrading effect on the environment. The task is to convert energy with out exceeding the limits of pollution.

Sensotronic Brake Control – the brakes of the future:-

1. Stuttgart -- Sensotronic Brake Control – the brakes of the future With Sensotronic Brake Control electric impulses are used to pass the driver’s braking commands onto a microcomputer which processes various sensor signals simultaneously and, depending on the particular driving situation, calculates the optimum brake pressure for each wheel.
2. Moreover, the system offers innovative additional functions to reduce the driver’s workload. These include Traffic Jam Assist, which brakes the vehicle automatically in stop-and-go traffic once the driver takes his or her foot off the accelerator. The Soft-Stop function – another first – allows particularly soft and smooth stopping in town traffic.
3. Mechatronics brings together two disciplines which in many cases were thought to be irreconcilable, namely mechanics and electronics. Hence automobile functions which hitherto worked purely mechanically and partly with hydraulic assistance will in future be controlled by high-performance microcomputers and electronically controllable actuators.
4. For example: it was only thanks to mechatronics that an electronically controlled suspension system which instantly adapts to prevailing conditions when driving off, braking or cornering -- thus providing a totally new driving experience -- became a reality.
5. This electronically controlled suspension system will quickly be followed by the electronic brake system: Mercedes-Benz and Bosch have teamed up on this benchmark development project which will shortly enter into series production at the Stuttgart automobile brand under the name Sensotronic Brake Control -- or SBC for short.

ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING

Electro Discharge Machining:-
The unconventional method of several specific advantages over conventional methods of machining and these promise formidable tasks to be undertaken and set a new recording in the manufacturing technology. EDM is one such machining process, which has been immense help to the manufacturing process engineers to produce intricate shapes on any conducting metal and alloy irrespective of its hardness and toughness.

CLASSIFICATION:-

1. Contact initiated discharge
2. Spark initiated discharge
3. Electrolytic discharge ADVANTAGES

1. The process can be applied to all electrically conducting metal and alloyes irrespectives of their melting points, hardness, toughness, or brittleness
2. Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be produced on the work piece
3. Time of machining is less than conventional machining process DISADVANTAGES

1. Power required for machining in E.D.M is very high compared to conventional process.
2. Reproduction of sharp corners is the limitation of the process.
3. Surface cracking takesplace in some materials.

μ-Electro-Discharge Machining:-

Researchers at the University of British Columbia have developed a novel method for high throughput micro-electro-discharge machining (μEDM). This method eliminates the need for numerical control (NC) machines to control the EDM process and enables parallel micro-machining, dramatically reducing costs and time to machine moulds and dies with micro features. The University of British Columbia is seeking partners to co-sponsor further development of this technology and/or to licence the technology on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis.


Advantages:

• High-throughput, scalable, parallel machining of microstructures in any electrical conductor
• No need for traditional high cost numerical control machines to control tip
• Planar electrodes microfabricated onto workpiece and batch controlled
• Electrode fabrication compatible with standard lithography processes
• Based on established micro-discharge control technology: pattern size <10>

CAPP

Introduction:-

Software that tracks availability of equipment, costs, lead times, production volumes, etc., to help in creating a process plan.

To raise the efficiency of this process, we developed a practical computer-aided process planning system. It has been developed using deliverables obtained from advanced computer integrated manufacturing system for shipbuilding projects sponsored by the Ship and Ocean Foundation .

The system has a knowledge base which contains the know-how of skilled designers as well as design practices, and allows the assembly sequence of hull parts and intermediate products to be defined automatically. The system has been integrated with the shipyard CAD system MATES, and put to practical use.

WORKING:-


Technological advances are reshaping the face of manufacturing, creating paperless manufacturing environments in which computer automated process planning (CAPP) will play a preeminent role. The two reasons for this effect are: Costs are declining, which encourages partnerships between CAD and CAPP developers and access to manufacturing data is becoming easier to accomplish in multivendor environments. This is primarily due to increasing use of LANs; IGES and the like are facilitating transfer of data from one point to another on the network; and relational databases (RDBs) and associated structured query language (SQL) allow distributed data processing and data access.

With the introduction of computers in design and manufacturing, the process planning part needed to be automated. The shop trained people who were familiar with the details of machining and other processes were gradually retiring and these people would be unavailable in the future to do process planning. An alternative way of accomplishing this function was needed and Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) was the alternative.

Computer aided process planning was usually considered to be a part of computer aided manufacturing. However computer aided manufacturing was a stand alone system. Infact a synergy results when CAM is combined with CAD to create a CAD/CAM. In such a system CAPP becomes the direct connection between design and manufacturing.

Moreover, the reliable knowledge based computer-aided process planning application MetCAPP software looks for the least costly plan capable of producing the design and continuously generates and evaluates the plans until it is evident that non of the remaining plans will be any better than the best one seen so far. The goal is to find a useful reliable solution to a real manufacturing problem in a safer environment. If alternate plans exist, rating including safer conditions is used to select the best plans

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN PLANNING:-


A product must be defined before it can be manufactured. Computer Aided Design involves any type of design activity that makes use of the computer to develop, analyze or modify an engineering design. There are a number of fundamental reasons for implementing a computer aided design system.

• The productivity of the designer: This is accomplished by helping the designer to visualize the product and its component subassemblies and parts; and by reducing the time required in synthesizing, analyzing, and documenting the design. This productivity improvement translates not only into lower design cost but also into shorter project completion times.
• To improve the quality of the design: A CAD system permits a more thorough engineering analysis and a larger number of design alternatives can be investigated. Design errors are also reduced through the greater accuracy provided by the system. These factors lead to a better design.
• To improve communications: Use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more standardization in the drawings, better documentation of the design, fewer drawing error, and greater legibility.
• To create a database for manufacturing: In the process of creating a the documentation for the product design (geometries and dimensions of the product and its components, material specification for components, bill of materials etc), much of the required data base to manufacture the product is also created.

Design usually involves both creative and repetitive tasks. The repetitive tasks within design are very appropriate for computerization.

GPS

The Global Positioning System:-

Professor Richard Langley of the University of New Brunswick (also GPS World Innovation editor) has done several analyses to see how the use of GLONASS satellites could help compensate for a potential reduction in the number of available GPS satellites. These studies came in response to a warning from the U.S. Government Accountability Office about the potential drop in the number of healthy satellites in the GPS constellation as a result of delays in both the Block IIF and Block III modernization programs.

The GPS is made up of three parts: satellites orbiting the Earth; control and monitoring stations on Earth; and the GPS receivers owned by users. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space that are picked up and identified by GPS receivers. Each GPS receiver then provides three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the time.


WORKING PRINCIPLE:-


Individuals may purchase GPS handsets that are readily available through commercial retailers. Equipped with these GPS receivers, users can accurately locate where they are and easily navigate to where they want to go, whether walking, driving, flying, or boating. GPS has become a mainstay of transportation systems worldwide, providing navigation for aviation, ground, and maritime operations. Disaster relief and emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities in their life-saving missions. Everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids, are facilitated by the accurate timing provided by GPS. Farmers, surveyors, geologists and countless others perform their work more efficiently, safely, economically, and accurately using the free and open GPS signals.

The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS (the US military refers to it as NAVSTAR), is an intermediate circular orbit (ICO) satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location and providing a highly accurate time reference almost anywhere on Earth or in Earth orbit.

The first of 24 satellites that form the current GPS constellation (Block II) was placed into orbit on February 14, 1989. The 50th GPS satellite since the beginning in 1978 was launched March 21, 2004 aboard a Delta II rocket
GPS ELEMENTS:-



GPS was designed as a system of radio navigation that utilizes "ranging" -- the measurement of distances to several satellites -- for determining location on ground, sea, or in the air. The system basically works by using radio frequencies for the broadcast of satellite positions and time. With an antenna and receiver a user can access these radio signals and process the information contained within to determine the "range", or distance, to the satellites. Such distances represent the radius of an imaginary sphere surrounding each satellite. With four or more known satellite positions the users' processor can determine a single intersection of these spheres and thus the positions of the receiver . The system is generally comprised of three segments:
1. The space segment
2. The control segment
3. The user segment

Types Of Endoscopy

ENDOSCOPY:-

Endoscopy is the internal examination and inspection of the interior of body organs, joints or cavities through an endoscope. An endoscope is a device that uses fiber optics and powerful lens systems to provide lighting and visualization of the interior of a joint. The portion of the endoscope inserted into the body may be rigid or flexible, depending upon the medical procedure.Many endoscopic procedures are considered to be relatively painless and, at worst, associated with moderate discomfort; for example, in esophagogastroduodenoscopy, most patients tolerate the procedure with only topical anaesthesia of the oropharynx using lidocaine spray.

Micro-chip in Endoscope:-


Types of Endoscopy:-

Fiber optic endoscopes now have widespread use in medicine and guide a myriad of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including:

Arthroscopy: examination of joints for diagnosis and treatment .

Bronchoscopy: examination of the trachea and lung's bronchial trees to reveal abscesses, bronchitis, carcinoma, tumors, tuberculosis, alveolitis, infection, inflammation.

Colonoscopy: examination of the inside of the colon and large intestine to detect polyps, tumors, ulceration, inflammation, colitis diverticula, Chrohn's disease, and discovery and removal of foreign bodies.

Colposcopy: direct visualization of the vagina and cervix to detect cancer, inflammation, and other conditions.

Cystoscopy: examination of the bladder, urethra, urinary tract, uteral orifices, and prostate (men) with insertion of the endoscope through the urethra.

EGD (Esophogealgastroduodensoscopy): visual examination of the upper gastro-intestinal (GI) tract. (also referred to as gastroscopy) to reveal hemorrhage, hiatal hernia, inflammation of the esophagus, gastric ulcers.

Laparoscopy: visualization of the stomach, liver and other abdominal organs including the female reproductive organs, for example, the fallopian tubes.

Laryngoscopy: examination of the larynx.

Proctoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, proctosigmoidoscopy: examination of the rectum and sigmoid colon.

Thoracoscopy: examination of the pleura , pleural spaces, mediastinum, and pericardium

Insulin Production Systems

Insulin Production Systems:-

Type I diabetes mellitus is a disorder affecting over 80 million people worldwide. At present

exogenous insulin delivery via injection or pumps equipped with glucose sensors cannot provide the minute-to-minute normoglycemia needed to prevent the complication associated with this autoimmune disorder. The sensor pump technology also lacks durability, with device function often limited to only hours.

The exacting requirement placed on insulin dosage and timing of administration in diabetic patients, as well as the many years of safe and reliable treatments expected from the insulin delivery technology, have pointed to the advantages of implantable systems in which insulin would be synthesized as needed and made available to the organism on demand.

Four alternatives have been considered and have undergone clinical evaluation: whole organ transplantation, human islet and xenogeneic islet transplantation, immunoisolation of normal or tumoral insulin-secreting tissue, and transplantation of genetically-engineered cells to replace the functions of the beta cells.

At present there are three critical problem areas in the further development of implantable

immunoisolation devices:

1. supply of tissue,

2. device design and performance, and

3. protection from immune rejection.

Tissue Sourcing:-

Organs and cells of animal origin are being considered as a source of tissue for

xenotransplantation. If islet transplantation is to become a widespread treatment for type I diabetics, solutions must be found for increasing the availability of insulin-producing tissue

and for overcoming the need for continuous immunosuppression. Insulin-producing cells being

considered for clinical transplantation include porcine and bovine islets, fish-Brockman

bodies, genetically engineered insulin-secreting cell lines and in vitro produced “human”

β-cells.

Cell Banking and Transplanted Tissue Volume:-

Certain human cells can be readily cultivated and scaled up for cell banking. A partial list includes: skin cells, vascular cells, adipose tissue cells, skeletal muscle cells, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, mucogingeval cells, corneal cells, skeletal musclecells and pigment cells.